A rotating silicon \u2018seed\u2019 crystal is lowered into molten polysilicon with dopants for desired p-type properties, inside a furnace (Czochralski process). The seed is slowly pulled once the molten silicon cools resulting in a solid single crystal (c-Si) rod. Once cooled the rod ends are trimmed to make an ingot. Cube-shaped ingots can be made directly by casting molten polysilicon for cutting into wafers of multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si).\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sawing","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":64,"abstract":"
Once a chunk of the ingot is tested for quality control and x-rayed to confirm the crystal\u2019s atomic structure, or orientation, it is cut into more manageable sections and the sections are sliced thinly into discs or wafers using slurry or diamond wire saws. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Raw material cleaning","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":62,"abstract":"
Polysilicon, the feedstock for solar cells and other semiconductor devices, can be created by several processes that refine metallurgical grade silicon further to increase its purity. Some are variants of the original gas phase Siemens Process and others use chemical refining. Silicon with solar grade purity is defined as 99.999% (5N). \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Separation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":65,"abstract":"
After sawing wafers are immersed in de-ionised water to cool down, minimise oxidation and undergo an initial cleaning process to separate them and remove saw slurry. Broken, damaged and thick wafers are identified and removed during the process. Edges are also rounded to ensure wafers do not chip or break during processing. Lapping of wafers and polishing prior to final cleaning thin down the wafers, remove defects and scratches that have occurred during sawing or dicing and help to strengthen the wafers for further processing. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Wafer cleaning","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":66,"abstract":"
A final series of cleaning steps remove any residues, contaminant and particulates from the wafer surface and prepare them for processing. Cleaning steps prepare the wafer in different ways. Chemicals or plasma processes can be used for resist stripping and sputter or plasma techniques for removing oxide layers. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Measuring \/ Sorting","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":67,"abstract":"
Wafers for the photovoltaic industry must be measured for any defects that might adversely impact efficiency of the solar cell. Measuring processes and techniques ensure quality control; outgoing wafers can be measured for parameters including thickness, flatness, type and resistivity. The global association SEMI has initiated standards activities within the silicon processing and PV industries to establish accepted test methods. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Automation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":175,"abstract":"
Advances in production techniques and robotics has played an important role in improving silicon solar cell fabrication processes with many equipment suppliers providing complete equipment line tools and robotic systems and turnkey installations for all aspects of solar cell module manufacturing including bulk and thin-film solar cell processes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Wafer to Cell","color":"#00D4FF","level":1,"data":{"id":59,"abstract":"","children":10}},{"text":"Wafer inspection","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":75,"abstract":"
PV manufacturers need to check the quality of incoming wafers as cracked or damaged wafers must be eliminated prior to the start of cell production. Indentifying and removing defective wafers at this stage can enhance operations and avoid additional costs incurred from processing wafers that may not withstand the entire solar cell production process. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Texturing","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":76,"abstract":"
Texturing the silicon wafer increases the efficiency of a solar cell. A wafer with a matt surface will absorb more light. Traditionally wet chemical processing is used to texture wafers, with alkaline or acid chemicals used to make the wafer surface porous. Advanced in-line texturing processes such as plasma etching are used increasingly. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Diffusion","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":77,"abstract":"
To achieve the critical photoactive PN junction of a solar cell the n-type emitter junction is created by forming phosphorous oxide on the wafer\u2019s surface that will be the front or sun-facing side. The oxide enables phosphor atoms to diffuse into the silicon. Thermal diffusion of boron can be used to create the back surface field of the cell. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Etching","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":78,"abstract":"
During diffusion a layer of phosphorous glass forms on the cell surface and has to be removed by acid or other etching processes. Junction or edge isolation, to remove the phosphorous n-type edges of the cell, can be carried out directly after diffusion or later in the process after contacts are produced. Plasma etching, or other technique, isolates the junction. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"AR Coating \/ Passivation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":79,"abstract":"","children":0}},{"text":"Metallization","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":80,"abstract":"
The doped zinc telluride layer is annealed to produce the back contact.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Fire front \/ backside contact","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":81,"abstract":"
High temperature sintering seals the pastes, ensures good adhesion to the silicon wafer and produces contacts with good conductivity. Silver and silver\/aluminium pastes can be made that are suitable for sintering in a furnace in one process, known as co-firing. Alternative cell structures where all the PN layers and contacts are on the back side of the cell, such as metal wrap through (MWT), expose more surface area of the cell front to light absorption and ease the cell connection process. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Edge isolation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":82,"abstract":"
Removal of all the layers seals the edges of the thin-film module from the outside environment to prevent the cells from corroding from moisture and air ingress. Lasers are replacing conventional techniques like glass bead\/sand blasting or chemical etching as cleaner and more efficient alternatives. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Testing \/ Sorting","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":83,"abstract":"
Prior to being made into modules cells undergo testing and sorting. Optical and electrical properties are measured and efficiency data is gathered by exposing cells to simulated light conditions and grading cells into power bins according to electrical performance. Cells are also checked for micro-cracks, shunts and edge isolation imperfections all of which can affect long-term performance. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Automation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":176,"abstract":"
Advances in production techniques and robotics has played an important role in improving silicon solar cell fabrication processes with many equipment suppliers providing complete equipment line tools and robotic systems and turnkey installations for all aspects of solar cell module manufacturing including bulk and thin-film solar cell processes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Cell to Modules","color":"#00D4FF","level":1,"data":{"id":84,"abstract":"","children":16}},{"text":"Glass washing","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":87,"abstract":"
The first step of preparing low-iron float glass for solar modules is ensure the substrate is clean, rinsed and dried. Specialised automated equipment can be used to wash glass panels with water, rotating brushes, detergent, rinsing water and purified air for drying.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Safety tests","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":98,"abstract":"
Solar modules are subjected to tests for checking electrical and mechanical stability, which can be carried out by specialist organisations or equipment that comply with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and Underwriters\u2019 Laboratory (UL) standards. Electrical safety tests include wet and dry insulation and reverse current overload. Mechanical safety tests include module breakage, impact, push and strain relief testing. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sun simulation testing","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":97,"abstract":"
Module makers carry out performance tests using solar simulators usually based on Xenon Corporation flash or pulse lamp technology. A flash is used to measure the electrical characteristics of a module, known as an IV curve. Sun simulator technologies adhere to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Junction box assembly","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":96,"abstract":"
External electronics need to be connected to the module. A junction box, fixed to the back of the module, makes contact with the conductor ribbons of the module inside and provides access for cable connectors. The junction box also secures connections, surrounds live uninsulated parts and prevents reverse current. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sealing \/ Framing","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":95,"abstract":"
The sealed solar cells are fixed, or adhered, using silicone, to an aluminium frame with a protected anodised surface. Framing helps make handling and installation of the module easier and strengthens the module\u2019s resistance to structural stress and wear and tear. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Trimming","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":94,"abstract":"
After lamination, once the cell matrix has cooled, excess sealant is trimmed from around the edges using a hot knife or other tools. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Pre-lamination inspection","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":92,"abstract":"
Prior to lamination the modules with the backsheet applied are checked using infrared. The inspection process can pick out any strings with critical defects for repair prior to laminating, which helps ensure quality control and improve yields. Some inspection systems are designed to be used pre- and post- lamination for greater flexibility during production. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Lamination","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":93,"abstract":"
In glass thin-film modules the back of the module needs to be protected with a layer of encapsulant barrier plastic such as EVA, followed by a durable plastic backsheet made of Tedlar (polyvinal fluoride). The whole structure is sealed in a vacuum laminator. \n<\/p>
For flexible thin-film solar laminates, a clear or colored Tedlar film is the bottom layer, followed by a layer of EVA, followed by the thin-film solar cell layers that have been fabricated on a temporary carrier foil, or produced on a flexible substrate in a roll-to-roll process. Another layer of EVA is applied, followed by a final clear layer of a very tough durable polymer film such as Tefzel. The structure is then laminated for sealing.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Bussing \/ Interconnection","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":91,"abstract":"
Once a complete matrix is assembled on a glass panel, the strings are interconnected and the external connections are prepared. Sealing films, made from EVA or similar material, to encapsulate the cells and protect them from UV ray and other damage are applied. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"String layup","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":90,"abstract":"
In a layup station the strings are placed on the superstrate and prepared for interconnection. Some string layup processes include inspection systems to check the electrical characteristics of the cells and detect any defects. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"String soldering","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":89,"abstract":"
Cells are aligned on a belt are connected by soldering metal ribbon, known as tabbing. \u2018Strings\u2019 are made by attaching the ribbon from the top of one cell at the bus bar parallels to the bottom side of the adjoining cell at the backend firing paste. After soldering the strings are checked for their alignment and any breakages as the heat from soldering creates stress around the bonding area. Conductive adhesives are replacing soldering. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sheet preparation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":88,"abstract":"
A sheet of encapsulating film, made from ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or other clear barrier plastic, is fixed to the glass topsheet on to which strings of interconnected cells can be placed and connected into a matrix. Encapsulating films help protect the modules from degradation from UV, moisture and oxygen to preserve their longevity during commercial operation. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sorting \/ Packaging","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":99,"abstract":"
Modules are sorted, or graded into power bins, according to size and performance class in preparation for shipping units. Modules are packed horizontally or vertically. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Testing \/ Inspection","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":172,"abstract":"
Testing and inspecting solar panels after production identifies defective modules to be replaced or repaired and ensures product quality. High resolution camera technology as well as visual inspection can identify defective panels prior to distribution. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Assembling Automation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":173,"abstract":"
In an increasingly competitive industry manufacturers in the c-Si solar industry have begun introducing automation into all steps of module production to replace or reduce manual labour. Robotics technology has been critical in establishing automated assembling in steps including cell stringing, layup and framing. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Automation","color":"#00D4FF","level":2,"data":{"id":174,"abstract":"
Advances in production techniques and robotics has played an important role in improving silicon solar cell fabrication processes with many equipment suppliers providing complete equipment line tools and robotic systems and turnkey installations for all aspects of solar cell module manufacturing including bulk and thin-film solar cell processes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Thin Film","color":"#FFCE00","level":0,"data":{"id":56,"abstract":"","children":53}},{"text":"a-Si \/ uc-Si","color":"#FFCE00","level":1,"data":{"id":70,"abstract":"","children":13}},{"text":"Glass washing","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":122,"abstract":"
The first step of preparing low-iron float glass for solar modules is ensure the substrate is clean, rinsed and dried. Specialised automated equipment can be used to wash glass panels with water, rotating brushes, detergent, rinsing water and purified air for drying.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sun simulation test","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":132,"abstract":"
Module makers carry out performance tests using solar simulators usually based on Xenon Corporation flash or pulse lamp technology. A flash is used to measure the electrical characteristics of a module, known as an IV curve. Sun simulator technologies adhere to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Leakage test","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":131,"abstract":"
Wet leakage tests ensure the solar panel is properly insulated for withstanding wet weather conditions to reduce the possibility of fire and electrocution hazards. Under such tests, which comply with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, the panel is immersed in water for a period of time while a minimum of 500 volts is applied to the electrodes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Junction box assembly","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":130,"abstract":"
External electronics need to be connected to the module. A junction box, fixed to the back of the module, makes contact with the conductor ribbons of the module inside and provides access for cable connectors. The junction box also secures connections, surrounds live uninsulated parts and prevents reverse current. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Inspection","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":129,"abstract":"
Inspection of thin-film solar cells presents different challenges compared with rigid silicon. Manufacturers need to measure material performance. To ensure best performance and quality of thin-film cells inspection tools such as scanning cameras can be used at each processing step to pick up defects that occur. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Lamination","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":128,"abstract":"
In glass thin-film modules the back of the module needs to be protected with a layer of encapsulant barrier plastic such as EVA, followed by a durable plastic backsheet made of Tedlar (polyvinal fluoride). The whole structure is sealed in a vacuum laminator. \n<\/p>
For flexible thin-film solar laminates, a clear or colored Tedlar film is the bottom layer, followed by a layer of EVA, followed by the thin-film solar cell layers that have been fabricated on a temporary carrier foil, or produced on a flexible substrate in a roll-to-roll process. Another layer of EVA is applied, followed by a final clear layer of a very tough durable polymer film such as Tefzel. The structure is then laminated for sealing.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Edge isolation","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":127,"abstract":"
Removal of all the layers seals the edges of the thin-film module from the outside environment to prevent the cells from corroding from moisture and air ingress. Lasers are replacing conventional techniques like glass bead\/sand blasting or chemical etching as cleaner and more efficient alternatives. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Back contact deposition - Sputtering","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":126,"abstract":"
A highly reflective and conductive metal layer, usually silver or aluminium, produces the back contact of the thin-film solar cell. Conductor ribbons are attached to carry the current. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Active layer deposition","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":125,"abstract":"
The semiconductor in an a-Si thin-film solar cell comprises a three-layer PIN structure. Amorphous silicon (a-Si), which is silicon as a gas rather than crystal, is coated onto the TCO glass in a vacuum in sub-micron thick layers, or thin-films. Diluting the process produces microcrystalline thin-films. Tandem junction thin-film cells consist of a microcrystalline silicon PIN semiconductor and a-Si silicon PIN semiconductor on top, or sun side, in the same thin-film structure.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Laser scribing","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":124,"abstract":"
In thin-film solar manufacturing laser scribing is used to produce individual cells. Different thin-film layers are vacuum-coated or sputtered on top of each other on top of glass or other substrate sheet. Between coatings laser or mechanical techniques are used to make cuts, or remove thin strips of each layer so that the top electrode of one cell contacts with the bottom electrode of another cell, linking them up. The first patterning phase in the process (P1) removes strips of TCO. P2 removes strips of the active layer and P3 scribing removes strips back contact metal\/TCO layer.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"TCO deposition - Sputtering","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":123,"abstract":"","children":0}},{"text":"Sort \/ package","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":149,"abstract":"
Modules are sorted, known as binning, according to quality, size and performance class, in preparation for shipping units. Modules are packed horizontally or vertically. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Automation","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":179,"abstract":"
Advances in production techniques and robotics has played an important role in improving silicon solar cell fabrication processes with many equipment suppliers providing complete equipment line tools and robotic systems and turnkey installations for all aspects of solar cell module manufacturing including bulk and thin-film solar cell processes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Tandem A-Si Si Crystalline","color":"#FFCE00","level":1,"data":{"id":71,"abstract":"
Under Construction\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Si Crystalline","color":"#FFCE00","level":1,"data":{"id":72,"abstract":"
Under Construction\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"CIS \/ CIGS","color":"#FFCE00","level":1,"data":{"id":73,"abstract":"","children":16}},{"text":"Glass washing","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":134,"abstract":"
The first step of preparing low-iron float glass for solar modules is ensure the substrate is clean, rinsed and dried. Specialised automated equipment can be used to wash glass panels with water, rotating brushes, detergent, rinsing water and purified air for drying.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sort \/ package","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":148,"abstract":"
Modules are sorted, known as binning, according to quality, size and performance class, in preparation for shipping units. Modules are packed horizontally or vertically. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sun simulation test","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":147,"abstract":"
Module makers carry out performance tests using solar simulators usually based on Xenon Corporation flash or pulse lamp technology. A flash is used to measure the electrical characteristics of a module, known as an IV curve. Sun simulator technologies adhere to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Leakage test","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":146,"abstract":"
Wet leakage tests ensure the solar panel is properly insulated for withstanding wet weather conditions to reduce the possibility of fire and electrocution hazards. Under such tests, which comply with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, the panel is immersed in water for a period of time while a minimum of 500 volts is applied to the electrodes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Junction box assembly","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":145,"abstract":"
External electronics need to be connected to the module. A junction box, fixed to the back of the module, makes contact with the conductor ribbons of the module inside and provides access for cable connectors. The junction box also secures connections, surrounds live uninsulated parts and prevents reverse current. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Inspection","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":144,"abstract":"
Inspection of thin-film solar cells presents different challenges compared with rigid silicon. Manufacturers need to measure material performance. To ensure best performance and quality of thin-film cells inspection tools such as scanning cameras can be used at each processing step to pick up defects that occur. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Lamination","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":143,"abstract":"
In glass thin-film modules the back of the module needs to be protected with a layer of encapsulant barrier plastic such as EVA, followed by a durable plastic backsheet made of Tedlar (polyvinal fluoride). The whole structure is sealed in a vacuum laminator. \n<\/p>
For flexible thin-film solar laminates, a clear or colored Tedlar film is the bottom layer, followed by a layer of EVA, followed by the thin-film solar cell layers that have been fabricated on a temporary carrier foil, or produced on a flexible substrate in a roll-to-roll process. Another layer of EVA is applied, followed by a final clear layer of a very tough durable polymer film such as Tefzel. The structure is then laminated for sealing.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Interconnection","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":142,"abstract":"
Organic solar cell designs can construct modules based on one or several series of connected solar cells. The advantage of organic solar cells and other so-called \u2018printed electronic\u2019 devices and technologies is that device structures can be potentially be processed over large area surfaces. Interconnection is necessary if a module comprises several sub cells. To create individual cells on a substrate, scribing or patterning steps need to occur after different layers are deposited. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Back contact deposition - Sputtering","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":141,"abstract":"
A highly reflective and conductive metal layer, usually silver or aluminium, produces the back contact of the thin-film solar cell. Conductor ribbons are attached to carry the current. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Scribing","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":140,"abstract":"
Scribing is used to produce individual cells. Different thin-film layers are vacuum-coated or sputtered on top of each other on top of glass or other substrate sheet. Between coatings thin strips of each layer are removed by mechanical or laser cutting so that the electrodes of one cell contacts with the electrodes of another to link them up. The first scribing phase in the process patterns the molybdenum layer, by making cuts down to the substrate. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"CdS deposition","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":139,"abstract":"
The n-type junction, to produce the heterojunction structure of the CIGS cell\u2019s active layer, is produced by applying the polycrystalline photoresistor cadmium sulfide on top of the p-type layer using a chemical bath or similar deposition process. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Activation","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":138,"abstract":"
The metal precursor layer is activated by reacting with a selenium vapour to establish the final film composition. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Active layer deposition","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":137,"abstract":"
The semiconductor in an a-Si thin-film solar cell comprises a three-layer PIN structure. Amorphous silicon (a-Si), which is silicon as a gas rather than crystal, is coated onto the TCO glass in a vacuum in sub-micron thick layers, or thin-films. Diluting the process produces microcrystalline thin-films. Tandem junction thin-film cells consist of a microcrystalline silicon PIN semiconductor and a-Si silicon PIN semiconductor on top, or sun side, in the same thin-film structure.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"TCO deposition - Sputtering","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":135,"abstract":"","children":0}},{"text":"Laser scribing","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":168,"abstract":"
In thin-film solar manufacturing laser scribing is used to produce individual cells. Different thin-film layers are vacuum-coated or sputtered on top of each other on top of glass or other substrate sheet. Between coatings laser or mechanical techniques are used to make cuts, or remove thin strips of each layer so that the top electrode of one cell contacts with the bottom electrode of another cell, linking them up. The first patterning phase in the process (P1) removes strips of TCO. P2 removes strips of the active layer and P3 scribing removes strips back contact metal\/TCO layer.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Automation","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":178,"abstract":"
Advances in production techniques and robotics has played an important role in improving silicon solar cell fabrication processes with many equipment suppliers providing complete equipment line tools and robotic systems and turnkey installations for all aspects of solar cell module manufacturing including bulk and thin-film solar cell processes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"CdTe","color":"#FFCE00","level":1,"data":{"id":74,"abstract":"","children":19}},{"text":"Glass washing","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":150,"abstract":"
The first step of preparing low-iron float glass for solar modules is ensure the substrate is clean, rinsed and dried. Specialised automated equipment can be used to wash glass panels with water, rotating brushes, detergent, rinsing water and purified air for drying.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sun simulation test","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":166,"abstract":"
Module makers carry out performance tests using solar simulators usually based on Xenon Corporation flash or pulse lamp technology. A flash is used to measure the electrical characteristics of a module, known as an IV curve. Sun simulator technologies adhere to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Leakage test","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":165,"abstract":"
Wet leakage tests ensure the solar panel is properly insulated for withstanding wet weather conditions to reduce the possibility of fire and electrocution hazards. Under such tests, which comply with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, the panel is immersed in water for a period of time while a minimum of 500 volts is applied to the electrodes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Junction box assembly","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":164,"abstract":"
External electronics need to be connected to the module. A junction box, fixed to the back of the module, makes contact with the conductor ribbons of the module inside and provides access for cable connectors. The junction box also secures connections, surrounds live uninsulated parts and prevents reverse current. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Inspection","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":163,"abstract":"
Inspection of thin-film solar cells presents different challenges compared with rigid silicon. Manufacturers need to measure material performance. To ensure best performance and quality of thin-film cells inspection tools such as scanning cameras can be used at each processing step to pick up defects that occur. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Lamination","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":162,"abstract":"
In glass thin-film modules the back of the module needs to be protected with a layer of encapsulant barrier plastic such as EVA, followed by a durable plastic backsheet made of Tedlar (polyvinal fluoride). The whole structure is sealed in a vacuum laminator. \n<\/p>
For flexible thin-film solar laminates, a clear or colored Tedlar film is the bottom layer, followed by a layer of EVA, followed by the thin-film solar cell layers that have been fabricated on a temporary carrier foil, or produced on a flexible substrate in a roll-to-roll process. Another layer of EVA is applied, followed by a final clear layer of a very tough durable polymer film such as Tefzel. The structure is then laminated for sealing.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Interconnection (bussing)","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":161,"abstract":"
To connect the solar modules to external electrical circuit, the front and back contacts are bonded to conductive wires or tapes using conductive adhesives or other techniques and materials. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Test","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":160,"abstract":"
Plates \u2013 the glass substrates on which the CdTe cells are fabricated \u2013 are measured and also checked for pinholes and individual cells may also be contacted to achieve uniformity. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Heat treatment","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":159,"abstract":"
Under Construction\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Laser scribe rear contact","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":158,"abstract":"
A third laser cut is made through the interconnect. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Metallization","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":157,"abstract":"
The doped zinc telluride layer is annealed to produce the back contact.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Inter-film layer deposition","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":156,"abstract":"
Prior to metallisation a layer of zinc telluride or graphite doped with copper or aluminium is applied. Doped zinc telluride as an intermediate layer between the high-resistivity cadmium telluride layers and metal contact improve cell efficiencies. Vacuum processing techniques can be used to apply the layer. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Laser scribe front contact","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":155,"abstract":"
Second scribing phase cuts to the first TCO layer. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Cell insulation","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":154,"abstract":"
During the fabrication of the active layers and subsequent heat treatments random defects, or pinholes, are formed within these layers. This can shunt the back electrode to the front electrode and impact cell performance. A resistive material such as polyaniline can be applied by electro-polymerisation techniques to form an insulating layer that reduces current flow from the back contact to the cadmium sulfide n-type layer. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Laser scribing","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":153,"abstract":"
In thin-film solar manufacturing laser scribing is used to produce individual cells. Different thin-film layers are vacuum-coated or sputtered on top of each other on top of glass or other substrate sheet. Between coatings laser or mechanical techniques are used to make cuts, or remove thin strips of each layer so that the top electrode of one cell contacts with the bottom electrode of another cell, linking them up. The first patterning phase in the process (P1) removes strips of TCO. P2 removes strips of the active layer and P3 scribing removes strips back contact metal\/TCO layer.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Re-crystallization","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":152,"abstract":"
A cadmium chloride heat treatment optimises the crystal structure of the polycrystalline cadmium telluride by promoting grain growth and also passivation. Further understanding of the re-crystallization process is important to the industry in order to improve cell efficiencies. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Semiconductor layer deposition","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":151,"abstract":"
A transparent conductive oxide (TCO) is deposited on the substrate, typically comprising aluminum doped zinc oxide followed by an intrinsic zinc oxide layer. A very thin n-type \u2018window\u2019 layer comprising polycrystalline cadmium sulfide is deposited by metal-organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD), or other technique for applying layers on the nanometer-scale. Heat treatment follows. The p-type cadmium telluride layer is next applied by a vacuum process such as close space sublimation. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sort \/ package","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":167,"abstract":"
Modules are sorted, known as binning, according to quality, size and performance class, in preparation for shipping units. Modules are packed horizontally or vertically. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Automation","color":"#FFCE00","level":2,"data":{"id":177,"abstract":"
Advances in production techniques and robotics has played an important role in improving silicon solar cell fabrication processes with many equipment suppliers providing complete equipment line tools and robotic systems and turnkey installations for all aspects of solar cell module manufacturing including bulk and thin-film solar cell processes. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Organic","color":"#CAE600","level":0,"data":{"id":57,"abstract":"","children":12}},{"text":"Cleaning ITO film","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":110,"abstract":"
Indium tin oxide (ITO) coated sheets of glass or plastic, for the cathode in the organic solar cell structure, are prepared by getting rid of any organic contaminants or particles. De-ionised water and mildly caustic solutions and ultrasonic agitation, dry cleaning UV ozone or other treatments can be used. Alternatives to ITO as the transparent electrodes for organic solar cells are in development or early stage commercialisation. Many of these are based on polymer blends with conductive nanometals such as silver nanowires or carbon nanotubes.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Inspection","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":111,"abstract":"
Inspection of thin-film solar cells presents different challenges compared with rigid silicon. Manufacturers need to measure material performance. To ensure best performance and quality of thin-film cells inspection tools such as scanning cameras can be used at each processing step to pick up defects that occur. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"PEDOT:PSS deposition","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":112,"abstract":"
The electrical conductivity of ITO is comparatively low so a conductive polymer buffer layer is applied. PEDOT:PSS functions as an efficient hole extracting layer in the organic solar cell structure and can be applied by room temperature processing methods such as roll-to-roll printing or coating. PEDOT:PSS can be blended with carbon nanotubes to enhance conductivity. The PEDOT:PSS also smoothens the ITO and keeps it from diffusing into the active layer. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Structuring Step","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":121,"abstract":"
Under Construction \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Inspection & thickness measurement","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":113,"abstract":"
It is important that the PEDOT: PSS layer is the thick enough. Optical vision systems can be used to check layer thickness and for imperfections. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Back electrode deposition","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":115,"abstract":"
For the back electrode a layer of aluminium, or other metal, is applied. Between the anode and the active layer a protective buffer of a non-reactive material such as lithium-fluoride can sit between the metal and the organic active layer. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Absorber deposition","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":114,"abstract":"","children":0}},{"text":"Interconnection","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":116,"abstract":"
Organic solar cell designs can construct modules based on one or several series of connected solar cells. The advantage of organic solar cells and other so-called \u2018printed electronic\u2019 devices and technologies is that device structures can be potentially be processed over large area surfaces. Interconnection is necessary if a module comprises several sub cells. To create individual cells on a substrate, scribing or patterning steps need to occur after different layers are deposited. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Lamination","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":117,"abstract":"
In glass thin-film modules the back of the module needs to be protected with a layer of encapsulant barrier plastic such as EVA, followed by a durable plastic backsheet made of Tedlar (polyvinal fluoride). The whole structure is sealed in a vacuum laminator. \n<\/p>
For flexible thin-film solar laminates, a clear or colored Tedlar film is the bottom layer, followed by a layer of EVA, followed by the thin-film solar cell layers that have been fabricated on a temporary carrier foil, or produced on a flexible substrate in a roll-to-roll process. Another layer of EVA is applied, followed by a final clear layer of a very tough durable polymer film such as Tefzel. The structure is then laminated for sealing.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Cutting ","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":118,"abstract":"
Modules can be cut by laser tools for specific applications. The advantage of processing solar cells on flexible foil and plastic substrates allows for easy processing. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Sun simulation test","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":119,"abstract":"
Module makers carry out performance tests using solar simulators usually based on Xenon Corporation flash or pulse lamp technology. A flash is used to measure the electrical characteristics of a module, known as an IV curve. Sun simulator technologies adhere to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Device assembly","color":"#CAE600","level":1,"data":{"id":120,"abstract":"
Under Construction\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Installation & Power Generation","color":"#FF36BB","level":0,"data":{"id":69,"abstract":"","children":12}},{"text":"Module to Installation","color":"#FF36BB","level":1,"data":{"id":85,"abstract":"","children":5}},{"text":"Residential installation","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":100,"abstract":"
A residential installation is a type of standalone solar photovoltaic system. PV modules are interconnected to create a photovoltaic array to achieve the peak DC voltage and current for general residential requirements (which is measured in watts or kilowatts) and connected to an inverter. Some installers supply both residential and commercial markets, providing one-stop-services including evaluation, installation and advice on financing tariffs and other incentives. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Commercial installation","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":101,"abstract":"
Businesses can install solar photovoltaic systems to generate their own electricity needs. PV modules are interconnected to create a photovoltaic array to achieve the peak DC voltage and current for different commercial installation requirements (which is measured in watts or kilowatts), and connected to an inverter. Some installers supply both residential and commercial markets, providing one-stop-services including evaluation, installation and advice on government incentives\/tariffs and tax rebates that are available. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"BIPV","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":102,"abstract":"
Most commercial and residential solar photovoltaic systems can be described as building applied photovoltaics (BAPV), where panels are typically mounted onto roofs. The advent of new thin-film solar technologies and manufacturing on flexible substrates enables modules to be fabricated as laminates and \u2018tiles\u2019 that can be more easily integrated into the building envelope. Efficiencies are lower but modules are lighter and easier to install than panels based on crystal silicon cells or other glass encapsulated solar cell technologies. Many installers and integrators supply building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) products. BIPV products in development include coloured transparent PV glass and roofing materials coated with PV cells. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Power plant \/ Solar farm","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":103,"abstract":"
Solar farms or plants are typically developed and operated by utilities or independent power producers. Solar farms, typically with installed capacities of multiple megawatts and based on many arrays of panels, can take up to several years to plan and build as developers negotiate land lease agreements, power purchase agreements with the electricity distributor and file building permit applications with local government authorities. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Off-grid installation","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":104,"abstract":"
Houses, properties or small communities in remote locations, where plugging into the electricity grid is not an option, or is very expensive to do can install solar panels to meet their electricity needs. Solar photovoltaic systems in off-grid applications can form part of an holistic approach to conserving energy and other resources such as water. \n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Install to Power Grid Consumer","color":"#FF36BB","level":1,"data":{"id":86,"abstract":"","children":5}},{"text":"Mounting systems","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":105,"abstract":"
System integrators and installers can work with suppliers of mounting systems for PV modules for different residential, commercial or other applications. Usually mounting systems are compatible with a variety of module makes and can be designed for flat or tilted configurations.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Inverters","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":106,"abstract":"
After the module itself inverters, which convert voltage from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) to power mains appliances, are the next most costly component of a solar photovoltaic installation. To enhance energy production modules are integrated with small or micro inverters. So-called AC modules operate at optimal voltage, optimise output and eliminate mismatch losses from shading and long-term degradation.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Trackers","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":107,"abstract":"
Energy production of solar photovoltaic modules can be optimised when panels face the direction of the sun all day. Modules can be fixed into the tracker structure. Highly reflective metal sheets can also be integrated into trackers to concentrate the light onto the panel. Trackers and concentrators, standalone or combined, can be designed for small and large systems.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Batteries","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":108,"abstract":"
To store and energy and drive appliances batteries are an important component of a solar photovoltaic system. Advances in lithium ion battery technology would allow energy produced during the day to be stored and used during evenings.\n<\/p>","children":0}},{"text":"Converters","color":"#FF36BB","level":2,"data":{"id":109,"abstract":"","children":0}},{"text":"Knowledge Center","color":"#FF9FF6","level":0,"data":{"id":68,"abstract":"","children":0}}];